Part 2
Climate change poses an escalating challenge to global labour systems, influencing the physical, chemical, biological, and psychological dimensions of work. Rising temperatures, extreme weather events, and environmental degradation are reshaping occupational risks across sectors.
This article examines the implications of climate change for occupational health and safety (OHS), with a particular focus on South Africa’s policy frameworks and international labour standards. It highlights the critical role of ergonomics and adaptive regulatory practices in promoting safe, resilient, and sustainable workplaces.
Climate change is an urgent global crisis that transcends environmental boundaries, profoundly reshaping economies, public health, and labour systems. Rising global temperatures, increasing frequency of extreme weather events, and shifting rainfall patterns create hazardous conditions that threaten worker health, safety, and productivity (International Labour Organisation [ILO], 2024). The ILO estimates that approximately 70% of the global workforce is exposed to excessive heat, resulting in over 19 000 heat-related deaths annually.
In South Africa, the consequences of climate variability are intensified by the country’s diverse climatic zones and existing socioeconomic disparities. National frameworks such as the Occupational Health and Safety Act (1993), Ergonomics Regulations (2019), and the Climate Change Act (2024) demonstrate proactive efforts to align workplace safety with environmental adaptation. Here we explore how climate change influences occupational hazards, how regulatory mechanisms are evolving in response, and how ergonomic principles can serve as a vehicle for climate adaptation on grain farms.
Hazards and health effects
Climate change affects occupational health through direct physical stressors, chemical and biological exposures, and indirect psychosocial effects. These impacts compound existing workplace hazards and generate new forms of vulnerability across industries (EU-OSHA, 2024).
Heat stress and thermal discomfort
According to the Department of Employment and Labour (DEL), heat stress represents the combined load on the human body from metabolic heat, environmental factors, and clothing requirements, influenced by air temperature, humidity, air movement, and radiant heat. Exposure to extreme heat can result in dehydration, fatigue, and heat stroke for workers. The cumulative effects of these, ranging from heat rash and cramps to heat exhaustion and stroke, pose significant threats to outdoor and industrial workers. The Heat Stress and Ultraviolet Radiation pamphlet emphasises employer responsibility under section 8 of the OHS Act (1993) to conduct risk assessments, identify heat hazards, and implement the hierarchy of controls, which includes engineering, administrative, and personal protective equipment (PPE) measures to mitigate exposure.
Key strategies of control include: ventilation systems and barriers in hot workplaces, job rotation and rest cycles in shaded or cooled environments, provision of cool drinking water, acclimatisation programmes for new employees or employees who have been removed from exposure for an extended period, and the use of reflective or lightweight clothing.
Air pollution and respiratory risks
Climate-induced air quality degradation, driven by higher ozone levels and wildfire smoke, elevates respiratory and cardiovascular risks. Workers exposed to outdoor pollutants or indoor industrial fumes are at increased risk of chronic illness. Mitigation strategies include improved workplace ventilation, establishment of clean-air zones, and the use of real-time air monitoring technologies (Safe Work Australia, 2024).
Vector-borne and zoonotic diseases
Rising temperatures and altered precipitation patterns expand the habitats of disease vectors such as mosquitoes and ticks, increasing occupational risks of malaria, dengue, and other infectious diseases among forestry, mining, and agricultural workers (IPCC, 2022; ILO, 2024; EU-OSHA/FAO-ILO-UNECE, 2023). The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the need for robust biosecurity measures and integrated public health and occupational surveillance systems, exemplified by South Africa’s occupational health surveillance system (OHSS) and related national guidance (NIOH/NDoH, 2021; NDoH, 2023; DEL, 2022).
Psychosocial and cognitive impacts
Prolonged heat exposure and climate-related anxiety contribute to psychological stress, cognitive fatigue, and reduced concentration. Cognitive ergonomics focusing on mental processes, decision making, and workload management play a crucial role in helping workers adapt to high-stress environments (EU-OSHA, 2024).
South Africa’s regulatory framework
South Africa’s OHS system integrates environmental adaptation into workplace safety through both statutory and policy mechanisms. The OHS Act (1993) and Ergonomics Regulations (2019) establish foundational standards for hazard prevention, while newer instruments such as the Physical Agents Regulations (2025) and Climate Change Act (2024) explicitly address environmental stressors (DEL, 2025). The DEL’s heat and UVR guidance operationalises these standards, detailing risk assessment procedures, exposure monitoring, and employer duties to maintain safe workplaces, even during heatwaves.
These frameworks align with international instruments such as ILO Conventions C155 and C192, emphasising preventive approaches, worker participation, and continuous improvement. They also complement broader policy agendas including the National Development Plan (NDP), the African Union Agenda 2063, and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), positioning OHS as a cornerstone of sustainable and equitable growth.
The role of ergonomics in climate adaptation
Ergonomics plays a pivotal role in enabling workplaces to adapt to environmental stressors by linking worker well-being with system design. Its interdisciplinary approach spans physical, cognitive, and organisational dimensions, supporting safe and efficient performance under changing climatic conditions (Huna, 2025).
Physical ergonomics
Physical ergonomics focuses on the design of tools, equipment, and work environments to enhance safety and well-being. Innovations such as reflective clothing, lightweight PPE, and hydration facilities help reduce heat load and fatigue. Workstations should be redesigned to ensure adequate airflow, shading, and posture-friendly setups that minimise musculoskeletal strain.
Cognitive ergonomics
Cognitive ergonomics supports mental performance in demanding environments. Real-time monitoring systems, digital warning signals, and visual hazard cues improve situational awareness and decision-making. Training programmes that simulate heat-related emergencies can further strengthen workplace safety culture (EU-OSHA, 2024).
Organisational ergonomics
Organisational ergonomics emphasises adaptive scheduling, rest management, and flexible work structures. Measures such as shifting work hours to cooler periods, enforcing hydration breaks, and enabling remote or hybrid work can effectively mitigate climate related risks. These practices align with the Basic Conditions of Employment Act (1997) and contemporary OHS principles.
Capacity building and enforcement
Labour inspectors and those working in related disciplines within OHS frameworks must be trained to recognise and quantify emerging risks such as heat and UV exposure. The DEL’s hierarchy of controls approach – elimination, substitution, engineering, administrative, and PPE – provides a structured enforcement framework for risk mitigation.
Integrating climate change, OHS, and sustainable development
Embedding climate resilience within OHS frameworks supports both productivity and social welfare. Protecting workers from climate-related risks reduces absenteeism, healthcare costs, and productivity losses, thereby strengthening economic performance. A climate responsive OHS system thus functions as both a human rights obligation and a development strategy (ILO, 2024).
Emerging risks and governance
Emerging hazards such as UV radiation, allergen exposure, and mental health stressors demand continuous research and adaptive governance. Partnerships between government, academia, and industry are vital for early detection and innovation. The DEL’s educational outreach materials, such as the Heat Stress and Ultraviolet Radiation pamphlet, are essential tools for worker awareness and preventive training.
Conclusion
Climate change is fundamentally reshaping occupational health and safety. Addressing these challenges requires coordinated action through ergonomic innovation, regulatory reform, and multi-sectoral collaboration. South Africa’s evolving OHS policies and educational initiatives demonstrate that adaptation is both achievable and essential for safeguarding worker welfare, ensuring decent work, and promoting sustainable growth.
